The Generational Shift in Communication Essay - 1132 Words

I believe that one’s age and generation do not affect their leadership style nearly as much as there life experience, motivation, and knowledge. A leader can be successful at any age, if they are willing and eager to constantly adapt their communication styles to accommodate their followers’ needs. However, within each generation there are different values and management styles and if an individual resists adapting to newer methods and neglects to embrace change they will not be a successful leader. For example, the business world has grown into a much different culture than it was 20 years ago. With the Information Age booming, information is readily accessible to many individuals and the lines of communication between leader and†¦show more content†¦(Behrstock–Sherratt and Coggshall, 2010) It is the combination of the focus on relationships, embracing the technological age, and their desire to create a positive impact on society through their busi ness practices that separate Generation Y from other generations and have created the shift in how teams communicate with one another. Leaders in Generation Y value and appreciate the professional relationships they create within their organizational culture, which creates a more democratic way of leading a team. Within this democratic leadership style, effective communication is essential to successful operations. New research has allowed Generation Y leaders to apply the knowledge they gain prior to getting trapped in the routine of a dictatorship. In the past 5 years alone, there have been multiple studies done regarding solely how leaders can communicate with their team to create the highest success rate along with the most invested followers. According to Clark (2008, para. 2), â€Å"Studying the communication process is important because you coach, coordinate, counsel, evaluate, and supervise throughout this process. It is the chain of understanding that integrates the me mbers of an organization from top to bottom, bottom to top, and side to side.† It is this cyclical ideology that has encouraged follower feedback and leader responsiveness and active listening, rather than acceptance of an individual leaders’ vision. The other communication shift that hasShow MoreRelatedOrganizational Structure And Culture At Lone Tree Convalescent Hospital1054 Words   |  5 Pagesis the pattern of learned values, attitudes, and behaviors in the organization’s members (Schein, 1990). 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This section of the handbook will help you to better understand effective methods for leading and working with intergenerationalRead MoreMotivation : Extrinsic And Intrinsic Factors1476 Words   |  6 Pagesresearch has paid little attention to generational shifts in extrinsic and intrinsic values. Twenge, Campbell, Hoffman and Lance (2010) argue that there is a generational shift towards work values and observed that Generation Y is less intrinsically motivated. Thus, each generation is motivated differently, and the implications for future workforces lies in the considerations of such generational shifts. Deal et al. (2013) affirm that there is a generational dissonance in external and introjectedRead MoreAnalysis Of Thomas King s Borders, The Young Boy And His Sister1062 Words   |  5 Pages Generational gaps exist amongst all cultures. Some however, are more detrimental than others. In Thomas King’s Borders, the young boy and his sister when compared to their mother reveals a striking example of not only a generational gap, but a cultural gap between newer generations of First Nations Peoples and their parents. Borders clearly emphasizes the influence that Western society and culture has on young Aboriginal Canadians not only in terms of tradition, but Aboriginal identity as wellRead MoreEmployee Engagement : A Leading And Primary Source And Tool Of Competitive Advantage And Business Success Essay1166 Words   |  5 Pagesachieving organisational success, in a very aggressive and competitive business environment. The present day workplace is said to be characterised largely by four different generational groupings, ranging from soon to be retiring â€Å"Veterans† and â€Å"Baby Boomers† to the new entrants in the workplace, the â€Å"Millennials†. This multi-generational workforce brings with it different characteristics, personalities, attitudes, values and expectations. These differences according to Bursch are not fully understood norRead MoreThe Generation Of The Boomer Generation1422 Words   |  6 Pagesjobs remain in an ever-shrinking and increasingly competitive American workplace. The entire work environment has been sent spinning as three generations of workers compete for fewer positions, all complicated by rapid advances in office and communications technologies that are eagerly embraced by younger workers while seemingly threatening to older ones. What s a manager to do? Yesterday s and Today s Gap The term Generation Gap entered our daily lexicon in the 1960s when members of the BoomerRead MoreManagement Of All Types Of Generation863 Words   |  4 Pagestypes of generation effectively in the workplace is imperative to the prosperity and harmony of the organizations. A few, if not greater, are probably not aware that generation gaps exist in the workplace or maybe avoiding the existence of these generational differences. According to Toops, (May 2013), â€Å"in my organization, there are real differences between older and younger generations and how they approach work† (p.40). No two people are alike and the more people recognize our differences, thenRead MoreLeadership And The Non Verbal Communication Styles1523 Words   |  7 Pagestakes great communication between leaders and subordinates. This is one problem that will be addressed in this literature review. The author will look at the problems and the solutions to overcoming these situations. The author will show that different leadership styles show that communication and determine how subordinates will produce as well having good morale. A few of these styles include transformational and laissez-faire. One last look would be that the non-verbal communication styles, providesRead MoreSwot Analysis : Strategic Management1152 Words   |  5 PagesWisconsin may endure because of the flux of the market (i.e., workforce demographic shift). Below is an abbreviated internal assessment of MCW HR strengths and gaps. Strengths Weakness Brand Recognition Lacks diversity and inclusion Competitive Wages Lengthy hiring process Self-development opportunities for employees Communication of Competencies In addition, the performance of the external audit revealed a shift that may threaten the culture of MCW. The United States is undergoing an unprecedentedRead MoreThe Generation Of The World Wide Web1473 Words   |  6 PagesFrom ages 39 to 62, Boomers will become the new managers, leaders, and faces of companies worldwide. As revolutionaries, their ideas are very different from what the Traditionalists uphold. Therefore, the ideals and expectations in the workplace may shift. Some of these ideals Boomers will bring include teamwork, volunteerism, promotion and recognition (Madjaroff, 2014). We must also remember that Boomers have a higher life expectancy so they are able to work longer, even in their older age. So businesses

Quality Education in the Philippines Free Essays

string(84) " intricate and obfuscators jargon of â€Å"globalization† entered the scene\." We know that Philippines country is rich in agriculture and economics. But don’t you know that Philippines are one of the top that is great in terms of education. And I can prove that in simply observing the status of my country and surveys in the rank of schools. We will write a custom essay sample on Quality Education in the Philippines or any similar topic only for you Order Now Literacy rate in the Philippines has improved a lot over the last few years- from 72 percent in 1960 to 94 percent in 1990. This is attributed to the increase in both the number of schools built and the level of enrollment in these schools. The number of schools grew rapidly in all three levels – elementary, secondary, and tertiary. From the mid-1960s up to the early 1990, there was an increase of 58 percent in the elementary schools and 362 percent in the tertiary schools. For the same period, enrollment in all three levels also rose by 120 percent. More than 90 percent of the elementary schools and 60 percent of the secondary schools are publicly owned. However, only 28 percent of the tertiary schools are publicly owned. A big percentage of tertiary-level students enroll in and finish commerce and business management courses. Table 1 shows the distribution of courses taken, based on School Year 1990-1991. Note that the difference between the number of enrollees in the commerce and business courses and in the engineering and technology courses may be small – 29. 2 percent for commerce and business and 20. 3 percent for engineering and technology. However, the gap widens in terms of the number of graduates for the said courses. Aside from the numbers presented above, which are impressive, there is also a need to look closely and resolve the following important issues: 1) quality of education 2) affordability of education 3) government budget for education; and 4) education mismatch. In Quality There was a decline in the quality of the Philippine education, especially at the elementary and secondary levels. For example, the results of standard tests conducted among elementary and high school students, as well as in the National College of Entrance Examination for college students, were way below the target mean score. In Affordability – There is also a big disparity in educational achievements across social groups. For example, the socioeconomically disadvantaged students have higher dropout rates, especially in the elementary level. And most of the freshmen students at the tertiary level come from relatively well-off families. In Budget – The Philippine Constitution has mandated the government to allocate the highest proportion of its budget to education. However, the Philippines still has one of the lowest budget allocations to education among the ASEAN countries. In Mismatch – There is a large proportion of â€Å"mismatch† between training and actual jobs. This is the major problem at the tertiary level and it is also the cause of the existence of a large group of educated unemployed or underemployed. Improved quality of education in the Philippine schools The Philippine education system is plagued with problems from the basic level until the tertiary level, and although previous and present administrations took steps to reform the system, these reforms failed to improve the country’s education system. According to the latest â€Å"Economic Policy Monitor†, released in April 2012 of government think tank Philippine Institute for Development Studies, despite the reforms pursued by the Aquino administration to address these failures, even more reforms are needed to improve the quality of education in the Philippines. The same study found that even the reforms initiated by the government may even bring more problems to the education system. Foremost among the problems in the early childhood education is the inequality to access to kindergarten education. THE INTENSE ECONOMIC CRISIS that the Philippines are currently undergoing has certainly buried the sanguine and unreasonable hopes that the government had projected for the near future. The triumphalism of Philippines 2000 has been shaken to the core and reduced to a laughable joke for the history books. This crisis only confirms that the Philippines have yet to liberate itself from the age-old problems, which have plagued it in the economic and political spheres. The much-trumpeted new epoch of free competition and borderless economies has not resulted in any real development but only in a more intense form of economic domination and exploitation of the poorer countries by the advanced capitalist countries. The seemingly neutral facade of Globalization has turned out to be more of the same old Imperialism that just cannot be wished away. Nevertheless, it would be too much of a simplification to arrive at the conclusion that the present global order has not resulted in any significant changes. It would certainly be correct to ay that for the educational system, as in Philippine society as a whole, that â€Å"nothing of the essence has changed. † However, even if it is true that the essential traits and defining characteristics of Philippine education has remained the same all throughout this so-called period of â€Å"Globalization,† it is also equally unavoidably true that certain changes have occurred and are still occurring that may not have actually touched the â€Å"essence† of things as they are but still have important implications for the understanding of the current situation and the various effective political responses that can lead to genuine social transformation. One of the main tasks is to attempt to identify what these â€Å"changes† are without losing sight of the â€Å"meaning† of these phenomena in relation to an essentially unchanged exploitative global economic and political system which must be identified as â€Å"imperialism. † The changes in question can be identified by analyzing the so-called â€Å"three major areas of concern† in education which have been underlined in the Medium Term Education Development Plan (MTEDP). These are: â€Å"(1) increasing access to and improving of the quality of basic education; (2) liberalizing the regulation of private schools, and; (3) rationalizing the programs of State Universities and Colleges (SUCs). † The question of â€Å"increasing access to† and â€Å"improving the quality of† education have been constant themes since even before the intricate and obfuscators jargon of â€Å"globalization† entered the scene. You read "Quality Education in the Philippines" in category "Papers" It cannot even be asserted that these ideas have changed in the sense that they previously had an altruistic meaning which has currently been lost in this period of technocratic appeals to â€Å"efficiency† rather than â€Å"morality. Reyes, John Christian A. BSIT-109I Improved quality of education in the Philippines schools This is the first major issue that the Philippine government should resolve but somehow it is recently improving. The quality of Philippine education has declined few years ago due to poor results from standard entrance tests conducted among elementary and secondary students, as well as the tertiary levels. The results were way below the target mean score. High dropout ates, high number of repeaters, low passing grades, lack of particular language skills, failure to adequately respond and address the needs of people with special needs, overcrowded classrooms, and poor teacher performances, have greatly affected the quality of education in the Philippines. Philippine education is strongly viewed as a pillar of national development and a primary avenue for social and economic mobility. It has undergone several stages of development from the pre-spanish time to the present. It is handled by three government organizations, namely, the Department of Education, Culture, and Sports. The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and the TESDA. The DECS govern both public and private education in all levels, with its mission â€Å"to provide quality basic education that is equitably accessible to all by the foundation for lifelong learning and service for the common good. † The government was mandated by the Philippine Constitution to allocate the highest proportion of its budget to education. However, among the ASEAN countries, the Philippines still has one of the lowest budget allocations to education. This is due to some mainstream political issues and humungous problems that the government is facing specially corruption. There are some measures that the Philippine government has looked into for the reformation of quality education. Technology use is starting to gain momentum in the overall education of this country. This helped improve the quality of education in the Philippines and to be globally competitive in this millennium. Improving the Quality of Education in our Country The Philippines has the highest number of college graduates among developing Asian countries, but that isn’t a substitute for quality. The role of education in economic development is widely acknowledged: education increases the innovative capacity of an economy and facilitates the diffusion, adoption, and adaptation of new ideas. More specifically, education increases the amount of human capital available, thereby increasing productivity and ultimately output. Education is especially important in a rapidly evolving economic environment where a rapid rate of job destruction and creation might otherwise lead to a gap between the skills demanded in the labor market and the skills of job-seekers. So how can regional cooperation improve the quality and availability of education? The role of regional cooperation in a particular country and what means of cooperation are viable will largely depend on that country’s position on the development ladder and the status of its education sector. The role of regional cooperation in a particular country and what means of cooperation are viable will largely depend on that country’s position on the development ladder and the status of its education sector. Since 1975 both GDP and education levels in China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam have been catching up. Over the same period GDP growth and improvements to education levels have been losing momentum in developed countries including the United States, Canada, and New Zealand. The Philippines exhibits a curious pattern in this respect, because even as the level of education attainment plateaued, its GDP has been falling behind. This is an apparent contradiction. Given the well-established beneficial effects of education on GDP and on GDP growth rates, the Philippines should have witnessed an era of high growth since 1975, when it had the highest rate of completion of tertiary education among developing Asian countries – higher than Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, or Singapore. This suggests that the problem in the Philippines has been the quality of education, rather than its availability or accessibility. Regional cooperation in education is often identified with trade in education services. In the Asia Pacific, this most commonly takes the form of direct exchanges of people, whether they be students from less-developed countries going to study in more-developed ones, or, as in the case of Singapore and Malaysia, academics from more-developed countries encouraged to relocate to universities in less-developed countries by partnerships between the two institutions. Trade in education services also takes place through transnational education, for example when foreign institutions are encouraged to establish campuses in developing countries. Yet these forms of cooperation are not the most appropriate for the Philippines – for instance because poor local infrastructure makes it difficult to attract foreign institutions and academics. And, moreover, the principal effect of these forms of education cooperation is to make education more available, when the problem in the Philippines is the quality of education – not its availability. Regulatory reform is needed to ensure that the quality of education received at home is high enough to give domestic Filipino students access to education and work abroad. This reform process must start by establishing a credible accreditation system, because under the current system of voluntary self-regulation, less than 20 percent of higher education institutions in the Philippines are accredited. Forms of international cooperation other than through trade in education services would allow the Philippines to improve the quality of domestic education by following the example set by Malaysia, which has linked its own accreditation system to international ones. Malaysia has also been active in promoting the development of a regional quality assurance framework, the ASEAN Quality Assurance Network (AQAN). The AQAN was organized in 2008 in order to promote collaboration among quality assurance agencies in individual ASEAN countries. Though the Philippines has not yet fully acceded to the AQAN, negotiations are underway to formalize an agreement to adopt common standards in the education sector. The Philippines can also pursue bilateral mutual recognition agreements. Such agreements should include quality assurance on the part of both countries. In this way, even if the standards are not at the same level as in higher-income countries, there will be pressure on some of the higher education institutions in the Philippines to improve their programs and facilities in order to gain accreditation. Such agreements, whether bilateral or as part of the AQAN, might make it easier for Filipino policy makers to argue for domestic reform on the basis that it is necessary to meet international agreements. With a higher-quality higher education system, the Philippines would then be better placed to reap the well-documented economic benefits of an educated population. How to cite Quality Education in the Philippines, Papers

Unity in Diversity Essay Sample free essay sample

Integrity in diverseness is a construct of â€Å"unity without uniformity and diverseness without fragmentation† [ 2 ] that shifts focal point from integrity based on a mere tolerance of physical. cultural. lingual. societal. spiritual. political. ideological and/or psychological differences towards a more complex integrity based on an apprehension that difference enriches human interactions. The construct of integrity in diverseness was used â€Å"in non-Western civilizations such as autochthonal peoples in North America and Taoist societies in 400-500 B. C. In premodern Western civilization it has been implicit in the organic constructs of the existence that have been manifest since the antediluvian Greek and Roman civilisations through mediaeval Europe and into the Romantic epoch. † [ 2 ] India is a state of many cultural groups. over 1. 650 spoken linguistic communications. idioms. regional variations—a land of countless tongues—numerous manners of dre ss and infinite idiosyncrasies. For the most portion. the Continental size of the state accounts for the fluctuations and diversenesss. Besides. there are many faiths. religious orders and beliefs. At times the broad differences seem to rule. and the end point inharmoniousness is regarded by many as irreme ¬diable. a phenomenon that the 100 crore people ( ours is the 2nd most thickly settled state ) have to populate with. whether they like it or non. The faultfinders even regard the Indian people as quarrelsome. frequently at each other’s pharynx. denouncing others as if they were chronic enemies keeping unreconcilable thoughts and subscribing to ideals wholly different from theirs. But those who stick to this feeling disregard a critical factor there is a basic integrity which runs through the Indian mainstream of life and idea. There is a traditional civilization which is truly oriental and which conforms to the instructions and principles of our saints and sages. Culture and civilization are true hard to specify. though both these signify certain identi ¬fiable tendencies and traits of character. particularly restraint. consideration for others and a high grade of tolerance. The deficiency of civilization becomes apparent even from the linguistic communication and the idiom one uses. the behavior and mode of life. one’s gestures in societal life. the inclination to hold a closed head. with doors and Windowss shut as if to forbid the influx of fresh thoughts and other point of views. Every procedure of exclusion betrays deficiency of civilization. merely as every tendency bespeaking a willingness to broaden one’s mentality shows a applaudable cultural trait. The same thought is frequently put in different words: inactive civilization envisages decay. merely as dynamism ensures survival. It is the dynamism and the flexibleness that have enabled Indian civilization to last despite its many diversenesss and heavy odds. Through these di ¬versities runs a common watercourse. as it were. and the similarity and integrity of mentality can be noticed from North to South and East to West. Indian civilization is really a uninterrupted synthesis. and has absorbed many external influences in the class of history. A important acknowledgment of the merger of cultural tendencies comes through T he Constitution ( Article 51-A ) . which says. interalia. that it shall be the responsibility of every citizen of India to value and continue the rich heritage of our composite c ivilization. Among the other Cardinal Duties mentioned in that Article is â€Å"to promote harmoniousness and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India. exceeding spiritual. lingual and re ¬gional or sectional diversenesss. to abdicate patterns derogatory to women†¦Ã¢â‚¬  All these are declarative of cultural development. Calm contemplation will demo that efforts to implement complete integrity and forbid any differences of idea and attack in a big state like India would turn out counter-productive and self-defeating. Peoples can keep different positions on life. faith. societal. economic and political systems and yet they can be cultured. Who. can deny that the people of India have throughout history honoured saints. sages. spiritual sermonizers and philosophers. rarely demoing fear for military heroes. exultant warriors and commanding officers. except ephemeral congratulations and adulation. Those who have fought for cultural freedoms and political independency. which ensures such freedom and the inexplicit autonomies to prosecute cultural chases. have commanded big and loyal followers. Had it non been for the tolerance shown by the people of India during the regulation of the Mughals and other foreigners. who brought in their ain tradi ¬tions and sought to enforce them on this state. the formless. flexible Indian civilization would hold lost its moorages. The Indian head has assimi ¬lated much of the thought of other civilizations. therefore enriching itself and doing itself lasting and virtually indestructible. The Western constructs and manners of frock. the English linguistic communication. the survey of English classics and European philosophers’ plants. even though they emphasised ideas and beliefs dif ¬ferent from those of the Indian people. have non been spurned. Rather. a good portion of these has become about a portion of the Indian manner of life and think ¬ing. particularly in the urban countries. The English-knowing elect exist alongside the Indian linguistic communication partisans. without tensenesss. The Western civilization has ever laid emphasis on philistinism. while the Eastern. particularly Indian. civilization has been closely linked with spiritualism. simpleness. filial responsibility and fondness. asceticism. tolerance and harmoniousness. Both are tolerated in this state. It is. nevertheless. a commiseration that in recent old ages the communal clangs. the increasing grounds of intolerance and inharmoniousness. the seemingly eternal strife. the unfastened clangs at public meetings. and the all-too-frequent de ¬nunciation of each other have increased so much as to bespeak that the people are burying their. true civilization. and are leting themselves to be exploited by selfish. artless people who seek to interrupt and destruct instead than construct and consolidate. The existent strength of Indian civilization lies in basic integrity. energy and the ability to incorporate an astonishing diverseness within itself. In this state there are people who belong to opposite schools of idea and who neer seem to hold on anything. And yet. the constructs of one basic civilization and one state have continued. Another noteworthy feature of Indian civilization is that it has ever been based on moral and spiritual values ; on thes e values the mentality shows an astonishing similarity. about throughout the state. Of class. there are groups which seem to be ever on the war-path. and there are dissenters who question the basic model on which the Indian civil order is based. but they constitute a really little fraction of the entire population. Furthermore. in every big state there are ever people who are practical Rebels in idea and title. and who wish to pulverize instead than concept. Even in the advanced states. such as the U. S. A. . there are people who are outside the picket of jurisprudence. who do non subscribe to the distinguishable American manner of life. The same holds good of the British people. Some Britishers are opposed to the centuries old establishment of monarchy and see it as otiose and an mistiming in the modem age of democracy. But they are as loyal to their state as the others. and they non merely lodge to the British civilization. but are proud of it. India is a secular State. and the people. with a few exclusions. have fear for every religion ; there is no attempt to en force one faith on other. The Constitution itself. framed with the full consent of the people. guaran ¬tees the freedom of idea and look. The Fundamental law does non recognize differentiations based on faith. sex or caste. or any other factor. Modernism co-exists with orthodoxy. as does progressive thought with conservativism. and even reactionist tendencies. The wide characteristics of the Hindu civilization. ( which is non linked to the Hindu faith but is loosely Indian civilization ) . It is non fixed or inactive but is invariably accommodating itself to alter conditions. therefore reacting favorably to new challenges ; tolerance of conflicting beliefs. liberalism and broadmindedness ; accent on ethical behavior and spiritualism ; control of passions and pique ; justness and truth. and contempt of wealth and the pleasances of the senses. Religious flawlessness is thirstily sought and preached ; moral rules. responsibility and â€Å"dharma† are assiduously propagated. particularly at pilgrim centres. Indian civilization. in fact. represents a synthesis on many strains. It con ¬tains the best characteristics of many traditions of other lands. Undoubtedly. cer ¬tain corrupt influences and deformations have crept in. but these aberrances have non affected the footing. which is solid. non rickety in any sense. Absorption and assimilation have been responsible for the permanent quali ¬ties of Indian civilization ; the diversenesss seem to vanish in class of clip. go forthing behind the basic beliefs really much intact. Mahatma Gandhi’s position that fear for other religions is a portion of our ain system holds good because of the acknowledgment that each faith has truth and honestness as its footing. Most people have a broad. cosmopolitan mentality. All these factors account for the integrity in diverseness that is an outstanding characteristic of this state.

The Tragedy of King Lear Essay Example Essay Example

The Tragedy of King Lear Essay Example Paper The Tragedy of King Lear Essay Introduction A Comparison of Psychological and Physical Deceit and Disguise In many of Shakespearean works, he suggests that appearances are not reflective of reality and uses this idea to develop many subplots in his works. He is notorious for constructing these false identities to advance the plotting and create unsuspecting twists. As his plays progress, different characters employ different strategies to promote their actions, with some opting to psychologically deceive their targets while others select to physically disguise themselves as someone else. Shakespearean King Lear, Is no exception; he portrays this theme through the various disguises of an array of characters that utilize deceit to reach their goals, which range from being supportive to being sinister. This element of deceit and disguise is first established in the opening scene when the reader discovers that King Lear Is planning to delve his kingdom between his three daughters. He tests his daughters by demanding them to procla im their love for him, with the intentions of awarding the daughter who displays her love to him the best with the largest share of his kingdom. The Tragedy of King Lear Essay Body Paragraphs The play as Just begun and Shakespearean theme of fake appearances has already arisen, as the outside appearances that each of the sister’s displays for their father is not in accordance with their actual thoughts. General and Reagan, King Learns two oldest daughters, both spin verbose and grandeur explanations about their deep love for him with General starting off by stating, â€Å"Sir, I love you more than word can wield the matter. Beyond all manners of so much I love you† (1. 1. 60-67). Reagan then plays off of her sister’s lead and begins to say, â€Å"l am made of that self mettle as my sister. And mind I am alone felicitate / In your dear Highness’ love† (1. 1. 76-84). This psychological ploy they use on King Lear seems to work, as he becomes frustrated and dissatisfied with his youngest daughter, Cordillera’s, answer. As King Lear waits for her to match her sisters’ responses, Cornelia refuses to make such comments, asserting that, â€Å"Unhappy that I am, I cannot heave / My heart into my mouth. I love your Majesty / According to my bond, no more nor less† (1. 1. 100-102). As a result of this, King Lear disowns Cornelia, abolishes her from the kingdom and splits the kingdom between the other two sisters. Following this incident, the Earl of Kent, who is the King’s most loyal nobleman and servant, while attempting to reconcile the King about his brash decision to banish Cornelia, is also hastily exiled from the kingdom for giving his opinion on the matter. Here, you can see that King Lear has let his emotions get the best of him as he tells Kent, â€Å"Five days we do allot thee for provision To shield thee from disasters of the world, And on the sixth to turn thy hated back Thy banished trunk be found in our dominions, The moment is thy death. Away! By Jupiter, This shall not be revoked. † (1. ‘. 197-203) Not only has the plans of obtaining the power of the kingdom gone accord ing to their plan, but General and Reagan were also able to unexpectedly rid the kingdom of two of their potential obstacles to the throne: one being Learns favorite daughter, Cornelia, and the other being his most loyal servant, Kent. The aftermath of this sequence of events turns out to play a large role in the future, as the King will soon learn that he made a mistake. Even though this is only the start of psychological deception in the play, the importance of its presence sets the tone for the play and makes it clear that everyone is susceptible to such trickery, even the almighty King. As the plot of King Lear and his daughters begins to develop in the opening scene, we are simultaneously introduced to another one of King Learns nobleman, the Earl of Gloucester. Early on, we learn that Gloucester is an adulterer and has a bastard son, Edmund. In contrast to Edmund is Edgar, Gloucester oldest and legitimate son. At the beginning of the second scene of the Act One, Edmund gives a soliloquy on the lack of respect and class he has received for being a bastard, stating that † Thou, Nature, art my goddess. Now, gods, stand up for bastards† (l. I. 1-23)! Here we learn of Edmunds plan to betray Edgar, by means of a forged letter, which documents Edger’s â€Å"plan† to kill his own father. When Gloucester reads the letter, he barely questions the authenticity of the letter and lets his emotions overcome him, â€Å"O villain, villain!. Abominable villain! † (l. Ii. 79). Afterwards, Edmund meets up with Edgar and alerts him of the news that Gloucester is livid at Edgar and that he is chasing him. Pretending to be of assistance to Edgar, Edmund suggests that he avoid Gloucester as much as possible and to remain armed in case Gloucester finds him. Here, Edgar naively mistakes Edmunds plan to protect his own brother as a sign of sincerity because of Edmunds ability to swiftly talk coupled with his deceptive nature. This makes it easy fo r Edmund to take advantage of the trusting and gullible personality of Edgar. In reality, Edmund is merely setting the bait for Gloucester to fully turn his back on Edgar so that Gloucester will anoint Edmund as the next heir to the throne. Edmund succeeds in accomplishing the next step of his plan when he convinces Edgar to flee Gloucester castle as their father approaches the room. Right when Edgar flees, Edmund intentionally wounds his arm, affirming â€Å"Some blood drawn on me would beget opinion / Of my more fierce endeavor. I have seen drunkards / Do more than this in sport. / Father! Father† (11. 1. 36-39)! By framing Edgar for his wounds as he fled the scene, Edmund has now secured Gloucester trust which has led him to the condemnation of Edger’s death. As the two plots continue to unravel, more disguises begin to unfold, with one of them being Kent after he was expelled from Learns Kingdom. Instead of double crossing his friends and family like Edmund had, Ke nt chose to return to Learns kingdom, disguised as an ordinary peasant, even though he had been wronged by Lear. When asked by King Lear who he was, Kent simply replied, â€Å"A man, sir† (l. V. 1 1). Lear seemed to be content with the man’s answer and allowed the newly disguised Kent to become his new servant. Even after that Kent was using was not of any importance, his characteristics lead him to be different than almost every character in the play. His role and physical disguise of being a random, selfless person who cares about the well-being of the King over his win safety Juxtaposes the psychological disguise the two sisters, General and Reagan, displayed back in Act One. Even though Kent has no familial relations to the King, he cared more about the King than the Kings own two daughters did. Not only did the two sisters deceive Lear into dividing his kingdom amongst them, but they both treated Lear with disrespect and banished him from their respective kingdoms . One cannot simply put a price Ken’s loyalty to King Lear, even after being expatriated by the King. Much like Kent, Edgar was also forced away from his kingdom ND was required to disguise himself as a means of protection. Under the name of Poor Tom, Edgar disguised himself as a beggar; however, unlike Kent, Edger’s entire persona changed. In an aside, we learn that throughout Edger’s time as a homeless man, there was no possibility that life could have been worse for him – â€Å"And worse I may be yet. The worst is not / So long as we can say ‘This is the worst† (IV. I. 30-31). It is only during his time as a homeless man that he knows that life couldn’t get any worse. Such logic would make sense in this situation because it is only at a man’s utmost lowest point where he becomes the true essence of what he is. With that being said, by spending time as a beggar and being homeless, Edger’s body is stripped away to the ve ry pith of his being and it is there that he finds what he is truly made of. When Edgar has almost fully adjusted to his new life as a homeless bum, he then sees his father, Gloucester, walking towards him, but without any eyes. Here, Gloucester believes that Edgar is Poor Tom and also divulges that he knows that Edgar is innocent and that it was Edmund who was behind everything. Gloucester hen asks Edgar to lead him to Dover, where â€Å"There is a cliff, whose high and bending head / Looks fearfully in the confined deep. ‘ shall no leading need† (IV. Ii. 83-88). At this point in the play, I was puzzled as to why Edgar did not disclose his real identity to his father, but I believe that it all boiled down to his father condemning him to death, which would always be hard to forgive. Edgar would eventually deceive Gloucester by not letting him commit suicide and Jump off of the cliffs of Dover, but instead Jump onto flat ground. This means of deception was a necessity to prevent Gloucester from killing himself which was easily diverted. After experiencing so many life-altering events, Edgar had finally grown into and found his new identity. Having become encapsulated in this new physical disguise that he had finally developed into, it ultimately gave him the strength and mental fortitude to face and defeat his brother in the final scene. By creating and interweaving these deceptions and disguises amongst all the characters, Shakespeare is able to more effectively develop the characters of the play. Much like the formal title, The Tragedy of King Lear, it was tragic and quite ironic that at the end of the play neither Kent nor Edgar got a chance to adequately reveal their true identities that were hiding beneath their disguises to both King Lear and Gloucester. Lear was far too delusional to understand Ken’s explanation that he was the Kings new servant due to the combination of his uneasy mental state along with Cordillera’s corpse in his arms, whereas we learn that Gloucester died from shock when Edgar attempted to reveal Shakespeare ends the play with only three surviving characters, leaving the reader to contemplate the mystery of their futures. We will write a custom essay sample on The Tragedy of King Lear Essay Example specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Tragedy of King Lear Essay Example specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Tragedy of King Lear Essay Example specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer

The Pitfalls of Thinking - The Road essays

The Pitfalls of Thinking - The Road essays The Road, by Cormac McCarthy, is a story of a post-apocalyptic world seen through the eyes of a father and son, while traveling in a seemingly desolated environment searching for a civilized society. The Road portrays what is left of the world and its inhabitants in a cold, unforgiving, and depressing manner. Traveling the road the father and son strive to carry the fire with them as they keep pushing on through what seems to be a futile and endless journey. Many characters in The Road are depicted as savages who have resorted to barbaric and cannibalistic methods in order to survive the environment they are placed in, which no longer contains any type of plant growth or animal food source, except humans. While traveling down the road, many of the characters in the story have resorted to survival by any means necessary, in doing so they have forgotten what it means to be human, thus creating many pitfalls in their thinking. The father in The Road creates many errors in his thinking that become recognizable and pointed out to him more and more by his son as the story progresses. The error of perspective the father makes the most is their error of the either or outlook. There are many factors to consider in thinking about surviving in a post-apocalyptic society. The father tells his son that they are the good guys while the cannibalistic murdering characters are the bad guys. The father tells the son that the good guys carry the fire, which represents internal human strength in the form of qualities as hope, perseverance, and resilience as well as morality, and the ability to retain ones humanity in the face of ultimate destruction and evil. The father explains to his son that there are either good guys or bad guys in this post-apocalyptic society. Unfortunately, their situation does not exactly lend themselves to such clear cut definitions of these terms and the son begins to realize this. Along their journey the son begins to c...

Seven Things You Need to Know About the Ocean

Seven Things You Need to Know About the Ocean Its a fact that you may have heard before, but it bears repeating: scientists have mapped more terrain on the surface of the Moon, Mars, and Venus than they have of Earths ocean floor. There is a reason for this, however, beyond apathy towards oceanography. It is actually more difficult to map the surface of the ocean floor, which requires measuring gravity anomalies and using sonar at close ranges, than the surface of a nearby moon or planet, which can be done by radar from a satellite. The entire ocean is mapped, its just at a much lower resolution (5km) than the Moon (7m), Mars (20m) or Venus (100m). Needless to say, Earths ocean is vastly unexplored. This makes it hard for scientists and, in turn, the average citizen to fully understand this powerful and important resource.  People need to understand their impact on the ocean and the oceans impact on them- citizens need ocean literacy.   In October 2005, a group of national organizations  published a list of the 7 major principles and 44 fundamental concepts of Ocean Science Literacy. The goal of Ocean Literacy is threefold: to understand the science of the ocean, to communicate about the ocean in a meaningful way and to make informed and responsible decisions about ocean policy. Here are those seven Essential Principles.   1. The Earth Has One Big Ocean With Many Features Earth has seven continents, but one ocean. The sea is not a simple thing: it hides mountain ranges with more volcanoes than all those on land, and it is stirred by a system of currents and complex tides. In plate tectonics, the oceanic plates of the lithosphere mix the cold crust with the hot mantle over millions of years. The oceans water is integral with the freshwater we use, connected to it through the worlds water cycle. Yet as large as it is, the ocean is finite and its resources have limits. 2. The Ocean and Life in the Ocean Shape the Features of Earth Over geologic time, the sea dominates the land. Most of the rocks exposed on land were laid down underwater when sea level was higher than today. Limestone and chert are biological products, created from the bodies of microscopic sea life. And the sea shapes the coast, not just in hurricanes but in the persistent work of erosion and deposition by waves and tides. 3. The Ocean Is a Major Influence on Weather and Climate Indeed, the ocean dominates the worlds climate, driving three global cycles: water, carbon and energy. Rain comes from evaporated seawater, transferring not just water but the solar energy that took it from the sea. Sea plants produce most of the worlds oxygen; seawater takes up half the carbon dioxide put into the air. And the currents of the sea carry warmth from the tropics toward the poles- as the currents shift, the climate shifts as well. 4. The Ocean Makes the Earth Habitable Life in the ocean gave the atmosphere all of its oxygen, starting in the Proterozoic Eon billions of years ago. Life itself arose in the ocean. Geochemically speaking, the ocean has allowed Earth to keep its precious supply of hydrogen locked up in the form of water, not lost to outer space as it otherwise would be. 5. The Ocean Supports a Great Diversity of Life and Ecosystems The living space in the ocean is vastly greater than the habitats of the land. Likewise, there are more major groups of living things in the sea than on land. Ocean life includes floaters, swimmers and burrowers, and some deep ecosystems depend on chemical energy without any input from the sun. Yet much of the ocean is a desert while estuaries and reefs- both delicate environments- support the worlds greatest abundances of life. And the coastlines boast a tremendous variety of life zones based on the tides, wave energies and water depths. 6. The Ocean and Humans Are Inextricably Interconnected The ocean presents us with both resources and hazards. From it we extract foods, medicines and minerals; commerce relies on sea routes. Most of the population lives near it, and it is a major recreational attraction. Conversely ocean storms, tsunamis and sea-level change all threaten coastal lives. But in turn, humans affect the ocean in how we exploit, modify, pollute and regulate our activities in it. These are matters that concern all governments and all citizens. 7. The Ocean Is Largely Unexplored Depending on resolution, only .05% to 15% of our ocean has been explored in detail. Since the ocean is approximately 70% of the entire Earths surface, this means that 62.65-69.965% of our Earth is unexplored. As our reliance on the ocean continues to grow, marine science will be even more important in maintaining the oceans health and value, not just in satisfying our curiosity. Exploring the ocean takes many different talents- biologists, chemists, technicians, programmers, physicists, engineers and geologists. It takes new kinds of instruments and programs. It also takes new ideas- maybe yours, or your childrens. Edited by Brooks Mitchell

Death penalty Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Death penalty - Research Paper Example While some people support the death penalty, others strongly condemn it. Some of the arguments in its favor are discussed below. This refers to a logical state-sponsored rejoinder to criminality, which is warranted given that once a crime happens; the victim is the state (Robinson, 2009). Cavadino & Dignan (2007) explain that retribution chastises the criminal in terms of â€Å"just deserts†. It focuses on the past events rather than on the future, and presumes that the penalty should fit the crime – â€Å"a tooth for a tooth†, so to say. Normally, criminals who face execution are those who cause serious harm to the society. A murderer for instance is executed with the validation that â€Å"two offences make a right†. Seemingly, the retributive argument is the strongest – when harmed, the government has a right to seek out justice with the intent of re-balancing the justice scales that the lawbreaker skewed to his or her benefit when he or she committed the crime (Robinson, 2009). According to Scott (2008), incapacitation is a philosophical justification of punishment that dictates that an offender’s physical capacity to commit a crime be removed (199). Those who hold this argument hold the view that death penalty takes away a criminal’s freedom in such a way that he or she is not able to perpetrate another offense – he/she permanently ceases being a menace to the society (Robinson, 2009).   Those who hold this view argue that once an individual initiates force against another guiltless individual, he or she has in reality declared that he or she does not conform to the principle of person’s rights. That criminal is not prepared to live among men as a reasoning individual – he or she only wants to live as a predator, to the obliteration as well as disadvantage of other beings around him or her. They also argue that rights result from a person’s nature of living as a rational being and if a person decides to live unreasonably, he or she is

Installation art of Olafur Eliasson Research Paper

Installation art of Olafur Eliasson - Research Paper Example Art allows artists the freedom to exercise with just any material to express their creativity. In the recent past, artists have taken this freedom to higher unique levels and have been using elemental materials such as humidity, water, air temperature, and light to come up with unique pieces. One such artist is Danish-Icelandic artist Olafur Eliasson. Olafur Eliasson transforms the perception of reality by inserting massive installations of nature into public spaces as this research study will reveal. To create The Weather Projectin London’s Turbine Hall, he made a large circular disc using multiple monochromatic lamps to create a sun radiating yellow light. Additionally, he created artificial mist in the hall using humidifiers casting a mixture of water and sugar then finished it by covering the ceiling with a large mirror1. The installation comes off as a large sun casting yellow rays into a dense mist. Visitors lie on their back and see themselves as tiny black shadows immersed in an ocean of yellow light. The purpose of the installation is to create an artifice of the sun, allowing visitors to â€Å"engage† closely with nature2. The New York Waterfallsinstallation at the New York harbor is a composition of four gigantic [artificial] waterfalls ranging between 90 to 120 feet high3. Eliasson created the project to allow people in the city to experience and appreciate their relationship with nature of immense nature. The size of the installations, which rise high above eye view creates an enhanced feeling of rare experience that the townsfolk are rare with. In this case, he brought the perception of reality (waterfalls) into a public space (New York City), allowing people to familiarize with the proportion of such occurrences as they are in nature without visitng them4. The Infinite Staircase in Munich, Germany, is yet another of Eliasson’s unique perception of reality in a public space. It

Translation and Technology Essay Example for Free

Translation and Technology Essay Contents 4 Computer-Aided Translation Tools and Resources Workbenches Translation support tools and resources Localization tools Commercial computer-aided translation tools Standards for data interchange Conclusion 5 Evaluating Translation Tools Machine translation systems Computer-aided translation tools Stakeholders Evaluation methods General frameworks for evaluating translation tools Conclusion 6 Recent Developments and Future Directions Machine translation systems Computer-aided translation tools Translation systems with speech technology. Translation systems for minority languages Translation on the web Machine translation systems and the semantic web The localization industry Conclusion 7 Translation Types Revisited Relationships between topics and translation types Machine translation systems Computer-aided translation tools Conclusion Appendices References Index  93 93 106 113 117 119 128 129 129 131 133 135 139 151 152 152 156 157 162 164 166 170 171 172 173 191 193 195 197 204 218 List of Figures, Tables and Boxes Figures 1. 1 1. 2 1. 3 1. 4 1. 5 2. 1 2. 2 2. 3 2. 4 2. 5 2. 6 2. 7 2. 8 2. 9 2. 10 2. 11 2. 12 2. 13 3. 1 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 3. 5 3. 6 3. 7 3. 8 3. 9 Classification of translation types Machine translation model Machine translation system based on usage Human-aided machine translation model Machine-aided human translation model Chronology of translation theories Translation process model Example of sentence representations Holmes’ schema of translation studies A schema of  applied translation studies A model of the translation process including pre- and post-editing tasks Example of an English SL text and its pre-edited version Unedited and post-edited Spanish machine translation output Example of natural and controlled languages. Example of original English text and its AECMA simplified English version Example of natural English, simplified English and simplified Arabic texts Example of an English controlled language text and its translations Illustration of the translation process using a machine translation system Chronology of machine translation development Example of structural representations. Machine translation architectures Direct translation model Interlingua model Interlingua multilingual machine translation system model Transfer model Transfer using tree-to-tree parsing Transfer multilingual machine translation system model ix  7 9 10 12 13 23 29 31 37 42 43 44 46 48 50 51 53 54 58 68 68 70 72 72 74 75 76 x List of Figures, Tables and Boxes 3. 10 3. 11 3. 12 3. 13 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 4. 5 4. 6 4. 7 4. 8 4. 9 4. 10 4. 11 4. 12 4. 13 4. 14 4. 15 4. 16 4. 17 4. 18 4. 19 4. 20 4. 21 4. 22 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 5. 4 5. 5 6. 1 6. 2 Statistical-based model Probabilities workflow in the statistical-based approach Example-based model Translations by online machine translation systems Example of HTML code in a web page Example of the web page without HTML code Example of a translation workflow using a translation memory system Example of an English source text Pre-translation 1 Database model in translation memory systems Reference model in translation memory systems. Flowchart to illustrate how to build a parallel corpus Example of a text header in a corpus Example of part-of-speech tagging Example of a concordance for the word ‘round’ Types of tool used in a localization project Example of the translation process using a machine translation system, a translation database and a terminology database Example of TMX  data-sharing Example of a header in TMX Example of a body in TMX Example of a header in TBX Example of a body in TBX Example of XLIFF in the localization process Example of a header in XLIFF Example of a body in XLIFF Example of an alternate translation element in XLIFF Example of a glass-box evaluation. Example of a black-box evaluation Example of an evaluation process Standardization projects for evaluating machine translation systems EAGLES general evaluation framework Future-use model of translation technology Speech technology in translation. 78 80 81 87 99 99 102 102 103 103 104 109 110 111 112 114 117 120 121 122 124 125 126 127 127 127 138 139 141 142 145 154 158 Tables 1. 1 3. 1 An example of a table for describing translation types Example of a word entry in KAMI 8 67. List of Figures, Tables and Boxes  xi 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 4. 5 4. 6 4. 7 4. 8 7. 1 7. 2 7. 3 7. 4 7. 5 7. 6 7. 7 7. 8 7. 9 7. 10 7. 11 7. 12 7. 13 7. 14 7. 15 7. 16 7. 17 7. 18 7. 19 7. 20 Imitation in the example-based approach Semantic similarity in the example-based approach Classification of commercial machine translation systems Example of perfect matching Examples of fuzzy matching Higher and lower threshold percentages for fuzzy matching Examples of matching suggestions for ‘bow’ Example of segments Example of translation units Example of English-French translation units from a database Classification of commercial computer-aided translation tools. Degree of automation Human intervention Integrated tools Application of theory Application of theory in machine translation systems Source-language texts Target-language texts Stages of the translation process Types of text Language dependency Types of source language Data interchange standards in translation Translation groups  and data interchange standards Levels of evaluation Methods of evaluation Features in a machine translation system Language coverage in machine translation systems Texts and computer-aided translation tools. Language dependency in computer-aided translation tools Number of languages in computer-aided translation tools. 82 82 88 95 96 97 98 100 101 102 118 174 175 175 176 177 178 180 181 182 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 193 194 194 195 Boxes 1. 1 5. 1 A translator at work FEMTI evaluation framework 14 147 Series Editors’ Preface Recent years have witnessed momentous changes in the study of Modern Languages, globally as well as nationally. On the one hand, the rapid growth of English as a universal lingua franca has rendered the command of other languages a less compelling commodity. On the other hand, the demand for intercultural mediators including translators and interpreters has grown as a result of many recent social, political and economic developments; these include legislative changes, the emergence of supranational organisations, the ease of travel, telecommunications, commercial pressures raising awareness of local needs, migration and employment mobility, and a heightened awareness of linguistic and human rights. Today, linguistically oriented students wishing to pursue a career in which they are able to further their interest in languages and cultures would be more inclined to choose vocationally relevant courses in which translation and interpreting play an important part rather than traditional. Modern Language degrees. Thus the possibilities for professional work in translation and interpreting have been extended, particularly as a result of developments in technology, whether as facilitating the translation process or as a means of dissemination and broadening access to communications in a range of media. The role of translation is, for example, becoming increasingly important in the context of modern media such as television and cinema, whether for documentary or entertainment purposes. And the technological possibilities for providing interpreting services, whether to the police officer on the beat or to the businessperson on a different continent, have extended the previously physically confined nature of mediating the spoken word. Not only do these new vistas open up opportunities for the professional linguist, they also point to expanding areas of research in Translation and Interpreting Studies. Practice and theory are of mutual benefit, especially in the case of a relatively young discipline such as Translation Studies. As a result, the first aim of this series, written primarily for the MA and advanced undergraduate student, is to highlight contemporary issues and concerns in order to provide informed, theoretically based, accounts of developments in translation and interpretation. The second aim is to provide ready access for students interested in the study and pursuit of Modern Languages to xii Series Editors’ Preface xiii vocational issues which are of relevance to the contemporary world of translating and interpreting. The final aim is to offer informed updates to practising professionals on recent developments in the field impacting on their discipline. Linguistic, Culture and Translation Studies University of Surrey Guildford UK GUNILLA ANDERMAN MARGARET ROGERS Acknowledgements I am indebted to three individuals for their contributions. This book would have taken more time to complete if it had not been for Chooi Tsien Yeo who researched background information for me. Words cannot express my gratitude to Stephen Moore, in between translation deadlines, for putting his experiences as a professional translator into writing. I am extremely indebted to Paul Marriott for his comments and suggestions, particularly on helping to visualize a new way to depict the multidimensional classification of translation types in Chapter 7. I would like to acknowledge especially the Duke University Libraries and Institute of Statistics and Decision Science at Duke University in providing me with the environment and research facilities where most of this book was written. Also my thanks to the National University of Singapore Libraries, George Edward Library at the University of Surrey, and the Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science at the University of Waterloo for their help. I would also like to acknowledge the following authors, publishers and organizations for allowing the use of copyright material in this book: John Hutchins, Harold Somers and Elsevier (Academic Press Ltd) for the classification of translation types in Chapter 1; Eugene Nida and the Linguistic Society of America for the translation process in Chapter 2; John Smart and Smart Communications, Inc. for the controlled and simplified English samples in Chapter 2; Francis Bond and Takefumi Yamazaki for the KAMI Malay–English dictionary entry in Chapter 3; Paolo Dongilli and Johann Gamper for the building of a parallel corpus in Chapter 4; Tony Jewtushenko and Peter Reynolds of OASIS for XLIFF in Chapter 4; Enrique de Argaez at Internet World Stats for the statistical figure on the Internet population in Chapter 6; Michael Carl, Reinhard Schaler, Andy Way, Springer Science and Business Media, and Kluwer Academic Publishers for the model of the future use of translation technology in Chapter 6. To Antonio Ribeiro, Tessadit Lagab, Margaret Rogers and Chooi Tsien Yeo, my most sincere thanks for translating from English into Portuguese, French, German and Chinese respectively. I am solely responsible for any translation errors that occurred. A special thank you goes to Elsie Lee, Shaun Yeo, Angeliki Petrits, Mirko Plitt and Ken Seng Tan for answering some of my queries. xiv Acknowledgements xv. To Caroline, Elizabeth, Gillian and Lyndsay, thank you for helping out with keying in corrections on the earlier drafts. Lastly, to my ‘sifu’ and friend Peter Newmark, a big thank-you for all the translation discussions we had during our coffee–biscuit sessions years ago. If it had not been for the series editors, Gunilla Anderman and Margaret Rogers, this book would not have been written. I am forever grateful to both of them for their feedback and comments. Thanks to Jill Lake of Palgrave Macmillan for her patience and understanding due to my ‘country-hopping’ from Southeast Asia to North America during the writing of this book. Waterloo, Canada CHIEW KIN QUAH List of Abbreviations. ACRoTERMITE AECMA AIA ALPAC ALPS ALT-J/C ALT-J/E ALT-J/M AMTA ASCC ASD ATA BASIC BLEU BSO CAT CAT2 CESTA CFE CIA CICC CRATER CTE CULT DARPA DBMT DIPLOMAT DLT DTS EAGLES EARS EDIG Terminology of Telecommunications European Association of Aerospace Industries Aerospace Industries Association of America Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee Automatic Language Processing System Automatic Language Translator Japanese to Chinese Automatic Language Translator Japanese to English Automatic. Language Translator Japanese to Malay Association of Machine Translation in the Americas Automatic Spelling Checker Checker AeroSpace and Defence American Translators Association British American Scientific International, Commercial Bilingual Evaluation Understudy Buro voor Systeemontwikkeling Computer-Aided Translation Constructors, Atoms and Translators Campagne d’Evaluation de Systemes de Traduction Automatique Caterpillar Fundamental English Central Intelligence Agency Center of International Cooperation for Computerization Corpus Resources and Terminology Extraction Caterpillar Technical English Chinese University. Language Translator Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency Dialogue-based Machine Translation Distributed Intelligent Processing of Language for Operational Machine Aided Translation Distributed Language Translation Descriptive Translation Studies Expert Advisory Group on Language Engineering Standards Effective, Affordable Reusable Speech-to-Text European Defence Industries Group xvi List of Abbreviations xvii. ELDA ELRA ENGSPAN ENIAC EURODICAUTUM EUROSPACE EUROTRA EVALDA EWG FAHQT/FAHQMT FEMTI GENETER GETA HAMT HICATS HT HTML IAMT IATE INTERSECT ISI ISLE ISO JEIDA JEITA JICST-E KAMI KANT KGB LDC LISA LMT LTC LTRAC MAHT MANTRA MARTIF Evaluations and Language resources Distribution Agency European Language Resources Association English Spanish Machine Translation System Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. European Terminology Database Aerospace  and Defence Industries Association of Europe European Translation Infrastructure d’EVALuation a ELDA Evaluation Working Group Fully Automatic High Quality (Machine) Translation A Framework for the Evaluation of Machine Translation in ISLE Generic Model for Terminology Groupe d’Etude pour la Traduction Automatique Human-Aided/Assisted Machine Translation Hitachi Computer Aided Translation System Human Translation HyperText Markup Language International Association of Machine Translation Inter-Agency Terminology Exchange International Sample of English Contrastive. Texts International Statistical Institute International Standards for Language Engineering International Organization for Standardization Japan Electronic Industry Development Association Japan Electronics and Information Technology Association Japan Information Center of Science and Technology Kamus Melayu-Inggeris (Malay-English Dictionary) Knowledge-based Accurate Translation Komitet Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti Linguistic Data Consortium Localisation Industry and Standards Association Logic-based Machine. Translation Language Technology Centre Language Translation Resources Automatic Console Machine-Aided/Assisted Human Translation Machine Assisted Translation Machine Readable Terminology Interchange Format xviii List of Abbreviations  MASTOR MAT METAL METU MLIR MT NAATI NIST OASIS OCP OCR OLIF OS OSCAR PaTrans PAHO PDA PESA RDF RFC SALT SGML SPANAM SUSY SYSTRAN TAP TAUM TBX TEMAA TGT-1 THETOS TMF TMX TOLL TONGUES TS TTS Multilingual Automatic Speech-to-Speech Translator Machine-Aided/Assisted. Translation Mechanical Translation and Analysis of Language Middle East Technical University MultiLingual Information Retrieval Machine Translation National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters Ltd. National Institute of Standards and Technology Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards Oxford Concordance Programme Optical Character Recognition Open Lexicon Interchange Format Operating System Open Standards for Container/Content Allowing Re-use Patent. Translation Pan-American Health Organization Personal Digital Assistant Portuguese-English Sentence Alignment Resource Description Framework Request for Comments Standards-based Access to Lexicographical Terminological Multilingual Resources Standard Generalised Markup Language Spanish American Machine Translation System Saarbrucker UbersetzungsSYstem System Translation. Think-Aloud Protocols Traduction automatique a l’Universite de Montreal TermBase eXchange Testbed Study of Evaluation Methodologies: Authoring Aids Text-into-Gesture Translator Text into Sign Language Automatic Translator for Polish Terminological Markup Framework Translation Memory eXchange Thai On-Line Library Act II Audio Voice Translation Guide Systems Translation Studies Theoretical Translation Studies List of Abbreviations xix. WebDIPLOMAT WebOnt WWW W3C XLIFF XLT XML Web Distributed Intelligent Processing of Language for Operational Machine Aided Translation Web Ontology World Wide Web WWW Consortium XML Localisation Interchange File Format XML Representation of Lexicons and Terminologies Extensible or Extensive Markup Language. This page intentionally left blank Introduction For over half a century, the demand for a variety of translations by different groups of end-users has enabled many types of translation tools to be developed. This is reflected in the systems that will be discussed in this book, ranging from machine translation systems, computer-aided translation tools and translation resources. The majority of books and articles on translation technology focusing on the development of these systems and tools have been written from the point of view of researchers and developers. More recent publications written with translators in mind have focused on the use of particular tools. This book is intended as an introduction to translation technology for students of translation. It can also be useful to professional translators and those interested in knowing about translation technology. A different approach is taken in that descriptions of particular tools are not provided, and the development of different machine translation and computer-aided translation tools and their uses are discussed. Programming details and mathematical equations are not considered, except in the discussion of the statistical approach to machine translation where minimal essential formulae are included. Descriptions are given to allow readers to further investigate specific approaches or issues that might interest them, using references cited throughout the book. It is also important to note that no particular approach or design is deemed to be better than any other. Each and every one has their strengths and weaknesses. In many cases, readers will find that examples of systems and tools are given but this does not suggest that they are the best; they are simply examples to illustrate the points made. 1 2 Translation and Technology. While researching this book, I discovered that the majority of publications from the literature on translation technology are about the development of machine translation systems, primarily involving experimental systems developed or being developed at a number of universities and large commercial corporations across the globe. The book will show that many of these systems never achieved their commercial potential and remained as experimental tools, while some others served as tools for other natural-language processing applications. By contrast, not much literature seems to be available on computeraided tools such as translation memory systems. As we shall see in this book, most computer-aided translation tools are developed by commercial companies and, as a result, progress reports on these tools are rarely published in the public domain. Furthermore, to cater to different needs and demands, a tool like a translation memory system comes in many versions from the most basic to the most advanced. Insights into the use of these tools can be found in translator magazines and occasionally also posted on the World Wide Web (WWW). The evaluation of translation tools falls into a field that is wellresearched. Again we will see that most of the literature focuses on the evaluation of machine translation systems. Furthermore, the extensive use of translation tools and translation processes involved in the localization industry tend to be discussed separately, giving the impression that they are not related to translation. These two areas are, however, directly relevant to translation technology. Hence they are also included in this book. Essentially, the book contains what is felt should be included in order to provide an overview of translation technology. In order to keep the book at the given length, the topics have been carefully selected with some described in greater detail than others. In some chapters, an abbreviated historical background has been deemed necessary in order to provide a better understanding of the topics discussed, especially in the description of the development of machine translation systems and their evaluation. However, in all cases, references have been provided which readers may choose to pursue at a later time. Suggestions for further reading are provided at the end of every chapter (Chapters 1 to 6). The first chapter discusses the definitions of terms referring to the use of computers in translation activities. Some of the terms can be confusing to anyone who is unfamiliar with translation tools. In some cases, the same translation tools are given different names depending on what they are used for; in other cases, a tool may be differently classified depending on the perspective of those who have developed that tool. Introduction 3 The aim in this chapter is therefore to clarify these terminological and related matters. An alternative perspective to the four basic translation types – fully automated high-quality machine translation, human-aided machine translation, machine-aided human translation, and human translation – first proposed by Hutchins and Somers (1992) is introduced to reflect current developments in translation technology. This will be explored in more detail in the final chapter where the four translation types are reviewed in relation to topics described in the book. The second chapter discusses technology within the larger framework of Translation Studies as a discipline, focusing on the relationship between the engineering of translation technology, on the one hand, and Translation Studies including translation theory, on the other hand. The relationship between academic and professional groups involved in translation is also examined. This in turn leads to a discussion of the involvement of a particular approach in linguistic theories – known as ‘formalisms’ in natural-language processing – especially in the design of machine translation systems. A different perspective on the translation process involving pre- and post-editing tasks using a special variety of language called ‘controlled language’ is also presented. This translation process is described using the translation model proposed by Jakobson (1959/2000), a translation model that differs significantly from the one proposed by Nida (1969). The third chapter gives detailed descriptions of different machine translation system designs also known as ‘architectures’. The development of machine translation over several decades, its capabilities and the different types of machine translation systems, past and present, are also included. Both experimental and commercial systems are discussed, although the focus is on the experimental systems. Even though machine translation has been well-documented elsewhere, a discussion is deemed to be important for this book. It is felt that modern-day professional translators should be informed about machine translation systems because there is every reason to believe, as we shall discover in Chapter 6, that future trends in translation technology are moving towards integrated systems where at least one translation tool is combined with another, as is already the case in the integration of machine translation with translation memory. The fourth chapter describes the architectures and uses of several computer-aided translation tools, such as translation memory systems, as well as resources such as parallel corpora. Unlike machine translation systems, which are largely developed by universities, most computeraided translation tools are developed by commercial companies. Thus, 4 Translation and Technology information about such tools is harder to obtain. This chapter will also show that computer-aided translation tools are becoming more advanced and using different operating systems, and so ‘standards for data interchange’ have been created. Three different standards are described. Currently available commercial translation tools are also discussed. In addition, this chapter presents an overview of other commercially available tools such as those used in the localization industry. The fifth chapter touches on the evaluation of translation technology. The discussion focuses on different groups of stakeholders from research sponsors to end-users. Also included in the discussion are the different methods of evaluation: human, machine, and a combination of human and machine as evaluator. The choice of method used depends on who the evaluation is for and its purpose. It also depends on whether an entire tool or only some components are evaluated. Also described in this chapter is the general framework of evaluation offered by various research groups in the USA and Europe. The literature on evaluation concentrates on the evaluation of machine translation systems either during the developmental stage or after the process of development is completed. Less information is available on the evaluation of computeraided translation tools. What is available is found mainly in translation journals, magazines and newsletters. The sixth chapter presents some recent developments and shows the direction in which translation technology is heading, in particular regarding the future of machine translation systems that are now incorporating speech technology features. The integration of speech technology and traditional machine translation systems allows translation not only between texts or between stretches of speech, but also between text and speech. This integration is proving to be useful in many specific situations around the globe especially in international relations and trade. This chapter also looks at research projects in countries that are involved in the development of translation tools for minority languages and discusses the problems encountered in developing machine translation systems for languages that are less well-known and not widely spoken. Another form of technology called the ‘Semantic Web’ that has the potential to improve the performance of certain machine translation systems is also described. Included in this chapter, too, are issues such as linguistic dominance and translation demands on the WWW that are already shaping parts of the translation industry. The book concludes by presenting an expanded version of the four basic classifications of translation types as suggested by Hutchins and Somers (1992) and introduced in Chapter 1. It is concluded that the Introduction 5 one-dimensional linear continuum originally proposed is no longer able to accurately reflect current developments in translation technology. Translation tools today come in different versions and types depending on the purposes for which they are built. Some are multifunctional while others remain monofunctional. An alternative way must therefore be found to depict the complexities and multidimensional relationships between the four translation types and the topics discussed in this book. It is not possible to put every single subject discussed here into one diagram or figure, and so, in order to gain a better understanding of how the issues are related to one another, they are divided into groups. Topics or issues in each group have a common theme that links them together, and are presented in a series of tables. However, it is important to bear in mind that not all topics can be presented neatly and easily even in this way. This clearly shows the complexity and multidimensionality of translation activities in the modern technological world. At the end of the book, several Appendices provide information on the various Internet sites for many different translation tools and translation support tools such as monolingual, bilingual, trilingual and multilingual dictionaries, glossaries, thesauri and encyclopaedia. Only a selected few are listed here, and as a result the lists are not exhaustive. It is also important to note that some Internet sites may not be permanent; at the time of the writing, every effort has been made to ensure that all sites are accessible. 1 Definition of Terms In translation technology, terms commonly used to describe translation tools are as follows: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ machine translation (MT); machine-aided/assisted human translation (MAHT); human-aided/assisted machine translation (HAMT); computer-aided/assisted translation (CAT); machine-aided/assisted translation (MAT); fully automatic high-quality (machine) translation (FAHQT/FAHQMT). Distinctions between some of these terms are not always clear. For example, computer-aided translation (CAT) is often the term used in Translation Studies (TS) and the localization industry (see the second part of this chapter), while the software community which develops this type of tool prefers to call it ‘machine-aided translation’ (MAT). As the more familiar term among professional translators and in the field of Translation Studies, ‘computer-aided translation’ is used throughout the book to represent both computer-aided translation and machine-aided translation tools, and the term ‘aided’ is chosen instead of ‘assisted’, as also in ‘human-aided machine translation’ and ‘machine-aided human translation’. Figure 1.  1 distinguishes four types of translation relating human and machine involvement in a classification along a linear continuum introduced by Hutchins and Somers (1992: 148). This classification, now more than a decade old, will become harder to sustain as more tools become multifunctional, as we shall see in Chapters 3, 4 and 6. Nevertheless, the concept in Figure 1. 1 remains useful as a point of reference for classifying translation in relation to technology. 6 Definition of Terms 7 MT CAT Machine Fully automated high quality (machine) translation (FAHQT/ FAHQMT) Human-aided machine translation (HAMT) Machine-aided human translation (MAHT) Human Human translation (HT) MT = machine translation; CAT = computer-aided translation Figure 1. 1 Source: Classification of translation types Hutchins and Somers (1992): 148. The initial goal of machine translation was to build a fully automatic high-quality machine translation that did not require any human intervention. At a 1952 conference, however, Bar-Hillel reported that building a fully automatic translation system was unrealistic and years later still remained convinced that a fully automatic high-quality machine translation system was essentially unattainable (Bar-Hillel 1960/2003: 45). Instead, what has emerged in its place is machine translation, placed between FAHQT and HAMT on the continuum of Figure 1. 1. The main aim of machine translation is still to generate translation automatically, but it is no longer required that the output quality is high, rather that it is fit-for-purpose (see Chapters 2 and 3). As for human-aided machine translation and machine-aided human translation, the boundary between these two areas is especially unclear. Both classes are considered to be computer-aided translation as indicated in Figure 1. 1 (Tong 1994: 4,730; see also Slocum 1988; Hutchins and Somers 1992). However, in Schadek and Moses (2001), a different classification has been proposed where only machine-aided human translation is viewed as synonymous with computer-aided translation. Human-aided machine translation is considered as a separate category. The reasoning behind the view offered by Schadek and Moses is not difficult to understand. At least theoretically, the difference between the two is obvious. For human-aided machine translation, the machine is the principal translator, while in machine-aided human translation it is a human. In practice, however, it may be less easy today to draw a distinguishable boundary between them. The blurring of boundaries is further complicated when human-aided machine translation is considered as a subclass of machine translation, an approach chosen by Chellamuthu (2002). Since human-aided machine translation has 8 Translation and Technology the machine as the principal translator –

Easy And Difficult Works In Ed :: essays research papers

According to the article "When Does Education Stop?" it stated that a young man interviewed the author, James Michener, and bellyaching about writing a three thousand words paper which is about James’ book. Because the young man sounded whimpering, James started to talk about his own experience of writing millions words paper. He mentioned that young people should realize that they have to put many efforts in order to achieve their goals. Also, men and women should know that they would face the difficult tasks before they success. Besides, no college can educate people with all they want, and all they need in the future. Although people study literature, logic or history probably have a fewer job opportunities, these fields actually have more wide job opportunities in the future. In addition, the schools are not a relax place. In stead of it, these schools are the places to train people. Therefore, if professors do not give many works for students to study, they s hould quit those professors or schools and seek others who have harsh teaching rules. The changes of the social structure caused people tend to learn the high technology instead of studying arts or literature. Some scholars think that people don’t know how to write a good paper, or a nice article because people think it’s too tedious that takes a lot of time to write, to research, and to edit. People love to look for material satisfaction, or participate with things which they are interested in. Therefore, they probably don’t want to spend much time to devote in studying. In my opinion, either having a lot of works or less works has it’s own advantages and disadvantages which depends on person’s own interests. People usually get different kind of benefits from various things, and it’s hard to determine which is better or not. According to the author, people avoid doing difficult tasks; instead, they just complain about those works. The hard works can develop people’s own knowledge, and that can train their brains to think deeper. People will have better abilities to face the future problems. The more experience people have in college, the better performances they can achieve in the society; for example, the biology students have to do a lot of lab works before they become a medical student even a doctor. If they don’t make any experiment before they become doctors, they probably will make many mistakes during the operation.

Fantastik All-Purpose Cleaners

Case: fantastik All-Purpose Cleaners Key Decision: Develop a brand strategy to increase fantastik’s sales and maintain its leadership position in the increasingly competitive all-purpose cleaner market. Problem/Opportunity: fantastik has limited financial resources to promote and develop its brand. Also, other heavy price discounting and new higher-priced cleaning products have threatened fantastik’s market leading position. Thus, fantastik needs to lower its retail price or innovate product categories to attract and maintain customers.Stakeholders: Johnson family benefit from the profits earned and success of the business. Customers need the strong cleaning function provided by the cleaners. Employees need a stable and safe working environment and expected salaries. Analysis: Internal: fantastik has leading brand equity in industry and strong social responsibility that commit to communities and the environment, thus customers who pursue green lifestyle could be loyal t o fantastic. Moreover, fantastik’s retail price $3. 9 is relatively high compared with its competitors, thus it may lose customers who are price sensitive. External: Consumers are moving towards environmentally friendly products, it gives fantastik a good opportunity and competitive advantage to compete with other competitors. Consumer Analysis: The target market is women aged from 25 to 49 who are responsible for the cleanness at home and has upper household income. They are concerned about quality of life, thus they prefer to purchase product with high quality.Competitive Analysis: The competitors are other all-purpose cleaners such as Lysol, Easy Off Bam, Mr. Clean, Vim, Hertel and private label. Those competitors offer lower retail price than fantastik and have strong cleaning function. Especially, private label products have the advantage of high margin for retailer and good shelf space. Alternative Marketing Strategies: Decision criteria: 1. Maintain competitive market share 2. Commit to environment 3. Allocate limited financial recourses successfullyAlternatives: 1. Develop new form of product and consistent with environmental responsibility. 2. Reduce retail price to remain competitive in the market. 3. Develop new scent of fantastik. It will cost too much to do market research and test and it’s easy to be copied by competitors. Recommendation: Decision: fantastik should develop new form of product and be consistent with environmental responsibility to attract more customers and improve household penetration, thus it can extend its product life cycle.Implementation Plan: Marketing Strategy: Target women aged from 25 to 49 who are responsible to do the cleanness of home and position high quality and functional benefit of product. Marketing Mix: Produce higher quality and new function product and commit to environment responsibility to earn brand equity from customers, and use higher retail price to indicate its high quality and make profit through high margin in the beginning.Moreover, company should use personal selling, product show and shelf advertising as promotion strategy. Finally, company can choose convenience stores nearby community as distribution centres in addition to major grocery, drug and mass merchandisers. Expected Results: fantastik can increase its dollar share by 4% in 2007 and keep its market leading position through implementing the marketing strategy.

The Causes of Commercial Bribery Crime

(1) From a historical point of view, in traditional Chinese culture, â€Å"human† is the social causes of commercial bribery. As everyone knows, China is a exquisite â€Å"courtesy demands reciprocity† state, courtesy demands reciprocity core is advocating â€Å"human intercourse†, in other words, Chinese person standards require that human relations between people..This traditional culture extends to business, evolved into â€Å"If you want to profit from the others, it is necessary to give people the appropriate return† business philosophy. This way, â€Å"If you want to earn more profits from the others, you should give greater reward† is taken for granted. (2) From the reality of power distribution situation, there has too much monopolistic industry in China, some of the management and the staff has too much power, which gives commercial bribery great road system laid the Foundation.Western economists had made the† Rent-seeking theory† to explain to the public rights advocates have with its control power for chip seek for their own economic interests phenomenon; According to the â€Å"power rent-seeking† theory, the power of the party will be looking for opportunities through the rent his power gain benefits, and possession of money but no dominant power a side is naturally will use their own money in exchange for power.There is no scientific and effective democratization and legalization power restriction mechanism premise, this inevitably appear using trading. (3) from actor inner point of view, the pursuit of maximization of interests huge internal power is the psychological causes of commercial bribery. The disadvantages is instinct. Each person can choose for their own works. In the business field, people tend to think hard to pursue the biggest profit.So, in this kind of mentality, because of the doer in order to obtain the biggest commercial interests, of course, will by hook or by crook – including the use of bribery and corruption means. (4) from the market the demand and supply of resources allocation to see, relation between supply and demand imbalance is the production of commercial bribery market economic conditions.Because the cause of the natural or man-made reasons, some material may be rare materials, will be in need greater than supply state; Some products and will appear supply is greater than demand state. Therefore, in the circulation of commodities in the process, in order to promote surplus commodities or buy shortage of goods, with excess goods party or need commodities in short supply party will by hook or by crook. Therefore, take commercial bribery seek market supply and demand balance of resource allocation is the unavoidable.

The History of Mechanical Clocks

The History of Mechanical Clocks During most of the Middle Ages, from roughly 500 to 1500 A.D., technological advancement was at a virtual standstill in Europe. Sundial styles evolved, but they didnt move far from ancient Egyptian principles.   Simple Sundials   Simple sundials placed above doorways were used to identify midday and four tides of the sunlit day in the Middle Ages. Several types of pocket sundials were being used by the 10th century one  English model identified tides and even compensated for seasonal changes of the suns altitude.   Mechanical Clocks In the early to mid-14th century, large mechanical clocks began to appear in the towers of several Italian cities. There is no record of any working models preceding these public clocks that were weight-driven and regulated by verge-and-foliot escapements. Verge-and-foliot mechanisms reigned for more than 300 years with variations in the shape of the foliot, but all had the same basic problem: The period of oscillation depended heavily on the amount of driving force and the amount of friction in the drive so the rate was difficult to regulate. Spring-Powered Clocks   Another advancement was an invention by Peter Henlein, a German locksmith from Nuremberg, sometime between 1500 and 1510. Henlein created  spring-powered clocks.  Replacing the heavy drive weights resulted in smaller and more portable clocks and watches. Henlein nicknamed his clocks Nuremberg Eggs. Although they slowed down as the mainspring unwound, they were popular among wealthy individuals because of their size and because they could be placed on a shelf or table instead of hung from a wall. They were the first portable timepieces, but they only had hour hands. Minute hands didn’t appear until 1670, and clocks had no glass protection during this time. Glass placed over the face of a watch didn’t come about until the 17th century. Still, Henleins advances in design were precursors to truly accurate timekeeping.   Accurate Mechanical Clocks   Christian Huygens, a Dutch scientist, made the first pendulum clock in 1656. It was regulated by a mechanism with a natural period of oscillation. Although Galileo Galilei  is  sometimes credited with inventing the pendulum and he studied its motion as early as 1582, his design for a clock was not built before his death. Huygens pendulum clock had an error of less than one minute a day, the first time such accuracy had been achieved. His later refinements reduced his clocks errors to less than 10 seconds a day.   Huygens developed the balance wheel and spring assembly sometime around 1675  and it’s still found in some of todays wristwatches. This improvement allowed 17th-century watches to keep time to 10 minutes a day. William Clement began building clocks with the new anchor or recoil escapement in London in 1671. This was a substantial improvement over the verge because it interfered less with the motion of the pendulum.   In 1721, George Graham improved the pendulum clocks accuracy to one  second a day by compensating for changes in the pendulums length due to temperature variations. John Harrison, a carpenter and self-taught clockmaker, refined Grahams temperature compensation techniques and added new methods of reducing friction. By 1761, he had built a marine chronometer with the spring and a balance wheel escapement that had won the British governments 1714 prize offered for a means of determining longitude to within one-half  a degree. It kept time aboard a rolling ship to about one-fifth of a second a day, nearly as well as a pendulum clock could do on land, and 10 times better than required.   Over the next century, refinements led to Siegmund Rieflers clock with a nearly free pendulum in 1889. It attained an accuracy of a hundredth of a second a day and became the standard in many astronomical observatories. A true free-pendulum principle was introduced by R. J. Rudd around 1898, stimulating the development of several free-pendulum clocks. One of the most famous, the W. H. Shortt clock, was demonstrated in 1921. The Shortt clock almost immediately replaced Rieflers clock as a supreme timekeeper in many observatories. This clock consisted of two pendulums, one a slave and the other a master. The slave pendulum gave the master pendulum the gentle pushes it needed to maintain its motion, and it also drove the clocks hands. This allowed the master pendulum to remain free from mechanical tasks that would disturb its regularity. Quartz Clocks   Quartz crystal clocks replaced the Shortt clock as the standard in the 1930s and 1940s, improving timekeeping performance far beyond that of pendulum and balance-wheel escapements.   Quartz clock operation is based on the piezoelectric property of quartz crystals. When an electric field is applied to the crystal, it changes its shape. It generates an electric field when squeezed or bent. When placed in a suitable electronic circuit, this interaction between mechanical stress and electric field causes the crystal to vibrate and generate a constant frequency electric signal that can be used to operate an electronic clock display.  Quartz crystal clocks were better because they had no gears or escapements to disturb their regular frequency. Even so, they relied on a mechanical vibration whose frequency depended critically on the crystals size and shape. No two crystals can be precisely alike  with exactly the same frequency.   Quartz clocks continue to dominate the market in numbers because their performance is excellent and they are inexpensive. But the timekeeping performance of quartz clocks has been substantially surpassed by atomic clocks.   Information and illustrations provided by the National Institute of Standards and Technology and the U.S. Department of Commerce.